Voynich plants – a biologist’s view

Stephen Bax ♦ March 14, 2014 ♦ 93 Comments

I have recently been contacted by a biologist from Finland who wants to remain anonymous. He has put a lot of work into looking at the Voynich plants, and has come up with some very interesting ideas and detailed discussion 4월은 너의 거짓말 영화 다운로드. He has agreed that I can post them here.

Many of them are informal and initial opinions, but I feel they are still extremely useful contributions Download charisma Joe ai. I’m most grateful to him for his extensive and considered analysis.

 

Note that he reached his decisions independently and on the basis of biology, not of the language side 사이버 오로 바둑 다운로드.

You can use the search box to find particular pages or suggestions quickly.

Voynich page	Primary suggestion	Comments
1v	Atropa belladonna or Scopolia carniolica	If all that is painted would be correct: Upright to nodding plant, leaves entire, hastate to adjoined to stem, fruit possibly dark, capsule or berry, with prominent calyx. Flowers more or less singly. Not Asteraceae or Cichoriaceae. Root/rhizome large, thick, horizontal. Two colours of leaves could refer to different colours or hairiness on lower and upper side. Leaf arrangment not clear, but not whorled. Questions include: - Is a certain species meant or is it a general model of plants (in beginning)? - Which parts are correct, which are not? - Which part is significant to the author (pharmacy effects)? First bids: Atropa belladonna or Scopolia carniolica. Scrophularia nodosa more far-fetched. All are pharmacy plants with rhizomes.
2v	Nymphaea	The figure supposed to be Nymphaea: I looked at the root (actually rhizome) now. Also it fits well to Nymphaea but also other aquatic plants. It seems to represent a horizontal rhizome (a modified, subterranean stem). The round structures in the rhizome correspond well with scars of earlier leaves etc. The image fits well in an aquatic plant (The rhizome would grow in the bottom mud). The flower seems to have at least some imagined features for any plant, however. E.g. Hydrocharis has similar leaves but difterent roots. It could be thought that the rhizome and perhaps a separate leaf would have been at hand, during the painting session, the flower being somewhat filled-in by imagination. Nymphaea has pharmacy uses. What I suggest to look for, in 2v, is simply the word WATER (repetition of same words as in bathing ladies?), perhaps also the combination of BOTTOM and ROOT, since this is a water plant anyway. Of course "water" might be avoided by words such as "lake" or "river", but worth checking I think.
3r	Polypodium vulgare	First thoughts on 3r: No flowers seen. Leaves or leaflets/lobes very tightly arranged. The image could represent a lobed or imparipinnate leaf emerging directly from thinnish roots. Strange dots on leaf margins might represent fern spores, as might the brown colours. First bid: Polypodium vulgare. Words to look for: (BITTER-)SWEET (taste of root), ROOT, ROCK/CLIFF/BOULDER (habitat). WORM (many ferns have been used as anti-worm drugs). Secondary choice: other ferns.
4r	Linum usitatissimum or Linum catharticum	I have not made extensive comparisons with this, but am making direectly a suggestion: If the image is correct, it seems to represent a thin-stalked herb with small narrow entire leaves opposite or in tight whorls, may grow a few shoots per root, its flowers are quite few per shoot, it has a visible calyx and a capsule fruit which splits in sectors and has some kind of tip. The plant is shown in fruiting stage, implicating that the flowers are not interesting for the book First bid: Linum usitatissimum or Linum catharticum. If this would be the case, words to look for: SEED (the useful part), BLUE (flower of L. usitatissimum), SLIMY (seeds when moistened), FIBER/THREAD/ROPE/CLOTH (products of stem fibers).
4v	Polemonium sp.	Making a direct guess of 4v without systematic searches: If the combination of a slender upright plant with large blue radially symmetric flowers and (im)paripinnate leaves is correct, there are only few alternatives. My first suggestion is Polemonium sp. There are mystic star-like structures painted in both flowers and lower in the shoot. But also these might make sense with Polemonium! In some stages of flowering the style tips are protruding and form a star-shaped structure (as do also some other plant genera, howerer). AND the capsule splits in sectors ans also the calyx may leave star-shaped remains. Secondary alternative: Delhinium/Consolida etc, but then the flowers would not be well drawn. Also the root with curvy contours fits with some Internet images labeled as Polemonium. Not a widespred drug but has been used for pharmacy purposes in the past. Both the fruits/seeds and roots might have been of interest to the painter.
5r	Paris quadrifolia	My first guess of 5r: Paris quadrifolia (this has been suggested by others in the net, as well) If this plant is aimed, then the fruit would represent a single dark berry (meaning of pale center unclear - shining?), the sharp-tipped calyx leaves would fit, as would the general habitus of a straight stem with a single flower/fruit in the top, and a radiating whorl of broadish, entire, elliptic to lanceolate leaves with a tip in the middle of the stem. The leaves curving down is not characteristic but is possible of course e.g. in a withering plant or as an artistic decoration. Although four is the general number of leaves in P. quadrifolia, whorls of more leaves do occur, and the painter may mot have aimed to give an exact number, just the general appearance. Also the nodulose rhizome in the image has some resemblance to that of Paris. Paris is poisonous and has been used as a pharmacy plant.
5v	Potentilla argentea	If this represents a small plant, the habitus and leaves fit quite well to Potentilla, but then the flowers should be generallly yellow rather than red. Eg. the pharmacy plant Potentilla erecta has a root which stains red and this might be symbolised with red flowers as well? But it has only four petals. Colour difference between upper/lower sides of leaves would fit better in e.g. Potentilla argentea. A big genus. Another candidate genus with smallish to middle-sized plants is Geranium. A candidate family with middle-sized to large plants is Malvaceae, including Malva, Lavatera and Althaea. E.g. Althaea officinalis is a pharmacy plant.
6r	Drosera sp.	6r seems a mysterious image, but I have a very unsure hypothesis to make: Drosera sp.??? If this is true, the image is zoomed, to represent plant height of about 5-15 cm. then the sharp lobes of the leaves would represent the insect-catching sticky hairs. The odd "moss capsules" near the top would represent capsules of Drosera. The artist surely has some meaning with the odd bumps on the capsules' sides, looking like sunrises. The position of these on sides would hint an irregular ("mirror-symmetric") flower, and I do not get any sure meaning for them. However, the flowers of Drosera being arranged in a spiral-like inflorescence may in some stages show structures (remains of various flowerparts) on their upper sides.
6v	Ricinus communis	Ricinus and some alternative candidates do not grow wild here in north, so I have not so wide personal experience on their variation in nature, and I may miss totally some potential alternatives. However: [re. Ricinus communis] It is very natural to conceive image 6v as a representation of a rather stout plant with palmate leaves (i.e. lobes radiating from a single center) and with big, round, spiky fruits. Please note the deceptive zooming problem, however: Compare this with the leaves of 16r which you (perhaps correctly) relate with a juniper (in this case, the flowers of 16 r would be male!). 16 r would then be a close-up, width of page being only about 5 cm, while the page of 6v, if Ricinus, would represent e.g. 1-2 metres in nature. I looked if there is any difference in leaves of 16 r and 6v. With good will, you could see in the supposed Ricinus the central veins of leaf lobes outlined in 6v, and the "needles" of 16r may be a bit more overlapping, more suggestive of individual needles. But a really different meaning remains unsure. Round, spiky fruits (or similar structures) also occur in: - Datura (but leaves of datura show only large serration, not a palmate form), - Castanea (a tree; single leaves are not palmate but might occur in tufts which may look like that) - Arctium (the spiky things being a modified inflorescense), but in Arctium the leaves are large roundish, not palmate. All the previous would fit into a stout plant about as large as ricinus. - If we assume that the artist has zoomed very much, there are several plants which have very small (e.g. 3-5 mm wide) spiky fruits which may attach to furs of animals, e.g. Galium (paired fruits, narrow leaves radiating directly from stem), and several Apiaceae or Boraginaceae, but to me these seem a bit far-fetched. Members of Dipsacus also have structures like Arctium. But with these comments, and perhaps overlooking some mediterranean plants, Ricinus really IS a very promising and natural candidate for 6v, and we do not need any imaginary additions for that assumption. Even the blue colour in fruits might refer to purple colours which may occur in any part of some Ricinus varieties. The drawing style might hint that the fruit is the emphasized part of the plant, and these (or the seeds inside) might have been stored/sold as a potent pharmacy product. We can also put it this way: If this image would be presented as Ricinus (assuming it would get some support in the text) no one would notice anything special 🙂 I forgot at least Aesculus hippocastaneum. That should also be considered as a candidate. Palmate leaves (although 6v is more ricinus-like) and spiky fruits. But I would rank Ricinus higher, since the image looks more like a Ricinus.
7r	?	Some very preliminary speculation about 7r: Although this might be taken as a flower, close inspection of the structure would rather hint towards a tip of a vegetative shoot. Many alternatives. It would be important to know the zooming level aimed. Perhaps the shoot tip of some plant (Juniper? other gymnosperm tree?) has been used as a pharmacy product. The root in the image seems to be grafted by the artist to the tip.
7v	Erigeron acre	Early guesses on 7v, no systematic search made: A hairy (annual?) herb with lanceolate entire leaves Erigeron acre? Other members of daisy family which are missing ray flowers? E.g. Gnaphalium. Hieracium pilosella?? Shoot fits well but then the "flowers" might be badly drawn and represent e.g. rhizome tip leaves. Boraginaceae such as Myosotis, Cynoglosssum etc.?? Leaves fit but then the flowers would be badly drawn.
11r	Salix herbacea and Salix reticulata	11r is a difficult one. The first impression is that of some cushion- or carpet-forming perennial plant of dry or alpine environments. The part of(pharmaceutical?) intrest to the artist would seem to be the roots. Bluish colours on such plants occur e.g. in Lamiaceae (such as Thymus), Saxifraga (S. oppositifolia), Loiseleuria (Alpine/Northern), and Silene acaulis (Alpine/Northern), but having these in combination with the roundish and toothed leaves illustrated, is difficult with the plants mentioned above. Maybe the painter has something wrong. Two perhaps surprising candidates come from the willows (Salix): There are (at least) two alpine creeping salixes, Salix herbacea and Salix reticulata which have rounded leaves quite similar to the image. In this case, the "flowers" illustrated would be female catkins which in these species nave often various shades of red or purple. I am not aware of medicinal use of specifically these two willows but certainly these have similar pain-relieving substances than other willows. If 11r would really illustrate these willows, the artist would have got material from alpine environments. There may be more southern Mediterranean plants which I no not know about.
11v	Rhododendron ferrugineum	11v is a mysterious image, just very first thoughts of it, to inspire further study: The tight "bush" has been painted very schematically or symbolically, it could represent nearly any tree or bush, "minishrub" (Ericaceae) or even a smaller plant if zoomed. We do not know which character - if any - is wrong or exaggerated, which is more right. The blue "flower" in the top is quite a mystery too. What is the artist trying to illustrate? If the plant is of the size of a bush, the flower seems unproportionally big. On the other hand, if we assume that the flower is of normal size, then the plant must be very small, e.g. type of Saxifraga oppositifolia. The coloring the leafs with alternating colors may just be an artistic method to clarify the density. BUT if informative, it leads to my best candidate thus far: Rhododendron ferrugineum, which is an alpine bush AND has rusty undersides of leaves AND has showy (albeit more purple-red) flowers. One thing seems to differ from many other illustrations, and may convey some information: The base and the higher branches: It seems that the branch illustrated is just one branch of a larger bush which branches near the ground, others cut away for clarity. This would also fit in e.g. Salix with pain-relieving properties. Also the branches just below leaves convey the same information of a branching bush. The "flower" might also refer to some kind of a young shoot tip, or a dark color reaction in a broken twig or anything else the artist may have observed by chance. So, my best guess at the moment is Rhododendron. I have not searched for its potential uses. The poisonous plant Daphne mezereum is much more far-fetched. (long leaves, paler purple flowers in spikes, not so dense).
14v	Urtica dioica, U. urens and U. pilulifera	14v looks strange if it is understood to represent the entire plant. My first guess however is that it illustrates only a detail which the artist has "grafted" directly with the root system. The leaves are illustrated as strongly serrate and the flowers (if they represent flowers) seem to be in clusters andto be very small and modest, perhaps wind-pollinated. Also note triplets of small dots in each cluster. When searching for such combinations, one genus rises up as a strong candidate, namely, nettles (Urtica). The habitus is different and this alternative can really be only explained by taking the image as a detail of the plant. Three species at least should be considered, Urtica dioica, U. urens and U. pilulifera with round flower clusters. U. urens (and according to an Internet source also U. pilulifera) is annual and does not have the illustrated branching rhizome. However the rhizome of the common nettle U. dioica would fit very fell to the image and has been used for pharmacy products. The tree dots in each cluster do not find a clear interpretation in case of Urtica, since its flower parts come in groups of four.
16v	Nigella damascena or Nigella arvensis	16v shows another mystery plant with a large, star-like, "hypnotizing" flower. The brown, circular, spiny structures in the middle are seemingly fruits. a) If we assume that BOTH the flower AND fruits are more or less correct, the first guess might be Nigella species such as Nigella damascena or Nigella arvensis. In this case, the fruits would be seen from below, and the tiny venation may represent the veins of the fruit as well as thread-like upper leaves. This does not prevent keeping even some other folios of the VM interpreted as Nigella (note also the cultured Nigella sativa). In this case similar words could occur in both Nigella pictures. b) If we put an emphasis on the special fruits and allow the flower to be imagined by the Artist, there are naturally more alternatives. Spiny, curved pods occur in e.g. Pea Family (e.g. Scorpiurus, Onobrychis, Hymenocarpus, Medicago). c) If we assume that only the star-like fruits were shipped to the Artist as exotic spices or drugs from Far East, for instance, there are still more alternatives such as star anise. According to a short Internet source, however, this plant was first introduced to Europe as late as in 1578.
17v	Rumex acetosella? Smilax aspera (=common smilax) or Smilax excelsa	[Compare with 99r,, possibly ] 17v represents the more slender, close relative Rumex acetosella. The difference between these plants' leaf base lobes (arrow-like or "spear-like" with protruding side tips) is still a valid diagnostic feature. This could act as a poorer substitute for 96v with about same effects. Following a suggestion from Marco Ponzi, the Finnish biologist added the following: "Yes, Smilax species are a good proposal, naturally! They are potent candidates, too. ........ It is better to include two species, Smilax aspera (=common smilax) or Smilax excelsa (=larger smilax), since both occur in S Europe, with somewhat different distributions. ........Smilax species have been used both as food plants and especially on other continents for medicine, too."
18v	Pulsatilla vernalis, or Malvaceae??	18v first choice: Pulsatilla vernalis or other Pulsatilla species? Features favoring this choice include the general habitus, large, beautiful, "hypnotizing" flower, multitude of stamens, protruding styles and hairs on the edges of flowers. This plant has a thick root, and the place of withered basal rosette leaves could correspond with the "lantern". I am not aware of any finger-like appendages, however, the leaves do not match fully, and the scales round the flower would be wrongly illustrated. Pulsatilla spp. have some active substances and have been used in pharmacy. Distribution e.g. Alps and northwards. 18v second choice: Malvaceae??
19r	Consolida regalis??	Such big blue flowers occur in several unrelated groups including Polemonium, Campanula and Gentiana. The combination of narrowly divided leaves AND a big bell flower would be most promising in Polemonium. However, the "granade-like" structures on top of upper side branches are enigmatic, especially as compared with the flowers. I glanced through some plant books looking for possible similar fruits in blue-flowered plants. I looked for seed size comparable with the bumps in figure's fruits and for longitudinal structures vaguely illustrated. Here I jumped into a plant named Consolida regalis (Synonym: Delphinium consolida), and found it to be an intresting candidate: If 19 r aims to present Consolida regalis, the the flower would have a totally wrong structure, could be explained if the artist had only previously collected fruits/seeds at hand, as a pharmacy product, and he is just told that it has big blue flowers, the form of which he would have invented from other flowers he has seen. Consolida is known for its very poisonous seeds (heart symptoms), but the whole plant is toxic. Both the plant and the seeds have been known for various pharmacy uses.
20r	Lavandula angustifolia	The modest habitus of the plant in 20r seems rather credible, as if the Artist would really have seen it, possibly as a dried specimen. Considering the inaccurate drawing style, however (e.g. flowers painted as dots), there are very few characters to solve the species. Possible characters include small, entire leaves along lower parts of the stem, relatively leafless inflorescens in the top, small bluish flowers and opposite arrangement of leaves. First guess: Lavandula angustifolia Secondary guesses. Other member of lamiaceae such as Hyssopus officinalis, Acinos arvensis (=Satureja acinos) or some Salvia species
21r	Herniaria	The image 21r is a promising one in the sense that the artist has in my opinion certainly seen the plant when painting the image. It is so trustworthy and lively illustrated to represent a flat creeping plant, seen from above, radiating from a central root to all directions, which has been dug up - probably with a sharp tool - from a courtyard, roadside or similar hard, dryish site. The plant seems to have modest tongue-formed leaves and modest more yellowish flowers in tight clusters. Unfortunately, the artist has not looked at the flowers more closely. The problem is that there are so many unrelated plants which inhabit this niche and may have similar forms and rudimentary structures. Without a systematic search, my first and best starting guess is some Herniaria species, since it is very similar indeed. The flower clusters are just like that, including te yellowish tone. It has been believed to cure hernia. Secondary choices include Polygonum aviculare, Suaeda species and probably many mediterranean genera (Polycarpon, Parietaria etc.) which I am not so familiar with.
22v	Paeonia officinalis	As far as the image 22v illustrates a real species, It seems that the artist has been impressed by the beauty of this stout, large-flowered plant which seems to have numerous anthers in each flower. It has roots or rhizomes (i.e. is a perennial plant). The leaves in the image may represent compound leaves. Several alternatives could be speculated. First bids, without any systematic search: Primary candidate: Paeonia officinalis, a pharmacy plant native to Southern Europe Secondary candidates: Pulsatilla species, Helleborus species, Ranunculus species.
23r	Borago officinalis? Veronica?	The image 23 remains unsure to me. However I would like to suggest that the identification clue may be in the leaves. The artist has painted them in a different way than other plants, showing in them blunt protuberances and perhaps a network of veins. I think the artist has experienced the leaves as typical to this plant, maybe also had some special feeling in his fingers when touching the leaves. As to flowers, the artist has painted so many blue flowers in other pages of the book, many of them partly imagined, that I am not convinced that this flower is accurate either. Perhaps the leaves is the part used and seen, and the flowers may be drawn based on a foggy memory. My best but very vague guess thus far is Borago officinalis, a traditional salad vegetable and also a medicinal herb. It has coarsely hairy leaves and also a network of veins is easily visible. It would have blue flowers, as well, albeit not fully similar to the painting. Other plants with various kinds of specially nodulose leaves include Cistus, Pinguicula and various plants with rigid hairs. These seem more far-fetched than Borago, however. [Later ideas] 23r, first choice: Some Veronica species, although number of petals should be 4, not 5. This genus would allow the combination of small bright blue, eye-cathing frowers, serrated-lobed up to nearly palmate leaves and a creeping rhizome. Difficult to find a good match on species-level, however. Candidates include: Veronica chamaedrys: Perhaps the best compromise: Shining blue single flowers, rather large indentations in the leaves, and has a rhizome (although quite thin). Common in grasslands, meadows. Has been used in pharmacy. Veronica officinalis: A known pharmacy plant, rhizome OK, but leaves more rounded, only small blunt teeth on leaf edges, and paler frowers in spikes. Drier places than previous. Veronica beccabunga and other water-inhabiting Veronicas: Rizome OK but leaves longer and narrower and flowers usually in spikes. Have been used in pharmacy Veronica persica, V. hederifolia etc.: Good match with flowers and best match in leaves, but these are annuals, the drug rhizome totally missing! 23r, second choices: Flowers also remind of members of Borage family (e.g. Omphalodes verna) and Anagallis of Primulaceae, but these have entire leaves.
24v	Vincetoxicum nigrum	An esoteric-looking plant. Odd circular leaves with a beak-like point and blue flowers. I make a first, vague guess, hypothetizing that the Artist has just made the point that the leaves are rounded inth base and have a sharp point, and the flowers are dark bluish. I allow the flowers be wrong in details: Vincetoxicum nigrum.
25v	Plantago	25v seems to represent a tight, sterile (i.e. non-flowering) basal rosette with lanceolate leaves. The artist may really have seen this plant in front of his eyes when painting. There are so many plants which may lok like this as young that perhaps only the text will solve this image. Some observations, however: The veins of the leaves, if meant to be informative, are shown as running parallel, instead of having a strong central mid-vein with thinner feather-like side branches. The parallel venation is usually seen in monocotyledons such as lilies, irises and orchids, Poaceae (grasses) and Luzula. So, these should be kept as candidates. However, more or less parallel venation is also seen in a few exceptional dicotyledon genera, and some of these are pharmacy plants, notably Plantago spp. used e.g. for wound healing and Arnica montana. An odd warty creature seems to be gnagging one of the leaves. Also this may be meant as informative. I tried to search for plant names such as Devil's bite (Teufelbiss) and frogbite. There are really some names like that, many used in variable meanings depending on the region. Nothing very promising found thus far. E.g. Teufelbiss has been used for Succisa pratensis which would have an abrupty "cut" root (the bulge in the image root does not look convincing) and does have feather-like venation and not such a tight rosette. Teufelbiss has also been used for biting-like marks in leaves of Phragmites. Not very promising as to habitus. To sum up, my primary guesses as to habitus would be Plantago, then Arnica, then a number of others, but the image is not solved.
25r	Mercurialis annua	Difficult to be sure since may be sterile, but you could start searching 25r from Mercurialis annua, female plant . This has had some pharmacy value. On the other hand, most plants have been used those days, in a way or another! If this guess would be true, the brown structures in leafbases would be fruits.
30v	Mercurialis perennis	First bid for 30v: Mercurialis perennis. Note this plant has a horizontal rhizome in contrast to the related M. annua (guessed in 25r). Finding the word BLUE in this entry (same word as in some blue-flowered plant?) could then refer to the the fact that the plant turns blue in drying and a blue dye has been produced. This species is also poisonous, with some old pharmacy uses.
31r	Tanacetum parthenium	If the flowers of folio 31r are near correct, I would start searching from Tanacetum parthenium. It is an old pharmacy plant, sais to originate from Asia Minor but cultivated elsewhere. Secondarily, its many relatives such as other Tanacetum species, Achillea millefolia or Chamomilla recutita.
32r	Prunella vulgaris	First bid on 32r: Prunella vulgaris. Has been an esteemed healing plant. But there are several other members of Lamiaceae (Mint family) which have somewhat similar flowering spikes.
33r	Papaver somniferum	The flowers of folio 33r seem to have a radiating structure on top of a bulbous part. Primary candidate: Fruiting stage (capsules) of Papaver somniferum, the opium poppy which is a long-cultivated pharmacy and food plant. Secondary candidates: - Other Papaver species. - Flowering stage of a Silene species or a related genus with an inflated calyx and divided petals. See, however, 24r which is easier to explain as a flowering Silene. Note the two human figures in the roots of 33r. Does the other smile and other be sad? These could be associated with dual effects of the plant, such as wakenness/sleep, drug use/food use, or pleasant effects/poisoning. Compared with all the above candidates, the leaves would not be well drawn. In case of Papaver, this could indicate that the Artist has mainly had access to the capsules, instead of the whole plant. Please note that the Artist may have a general tendency to exaggerate or directly imagine inflated basal parts of flowers.
34v	Arctium sp, especially Arctium lappa.	A starting guess for 34v: Arctium sp, especially Arctium lappa. Features supporting this candidate: The "flowers" with a large bulb of "calyx" with many rows of "petals" is suggestive of flowerheads of Daisy family (Asteraceae), in which case the "sepals" would actually be scale-like leaves (bracts) on the underside of the flowerheads. A secondary candidate family is the related Cichoriaceae, with slightly different flowerheads. The round, pancake-like structures on lower branches seem rather odd (especially looking so thick). But if we take the simplest solution that they represent leaves, then the image might just aim to tell the message that the plant has flowerheads and has rounded leaves. Such plants are not so many (in this family, a lobed or serrated leaf is the rule), most widespread candidates being burdogs (Arctium). If the artist has meant burdogs, he has failed to illustrate the typical crooked bracts which attach to the furs of animals, and the general habitus would be quite clumsily drawn. The roots of burdogs, especially of Arctium lappa have been used for traditional pharmacy, e.g. for skin disorders. The pharmacy name for the root product is Radix bardanae. Of course, if the flowers in the painting are result of the artist's imagination, only, the the logics above cannot be relied on.
34r	Sanicula or Astrantia?	A starting guess for 34r: Sanicula or Astrantia? Arguments in favor of these: The "flowers" in top with their many long "petals", are rather similar to the tight inflorescences of these two umbelliferous genera, especially Astrantia. Also the "leaves" are drawn oddly, as if consisting of several overlapping lobes. This could be an attempt to illustrate leaflets or lobes of compund leaves. At least Sanicula has been used in pharmacy, especially for healing wounds.
36v	Galium?	This looks a mysterious plant with palmate leaves and modest inflorescences in the top. But considering the atrist's clumsy style and poor ability to analyze (and/or remember) plant structures, could this be an attempt to paint a Galium species??
37r	Eupatorium cannabinun	Very preliminary guesses for 37r: Primary candidate: Eupatorium cannabinun (best fitting habitus) Secondary candidates: Sedum telephium (sensu lato)?? Valeriana??
41v	Achillea millefolium, or Apiaceae (=Umbelliferae, carrot family).	The image 41v obviously presents a herb with a flat-topped inflorescense and finely divided leaves. There are AT LEAST two separate groups of candidate plants: 1. Achillea millefolium and its relatives in the Daisy family (Asteraceae) such as Tanacetum vulgare (the latter if yellow flowerheads are allowed). Both have had pharmacy uses. 2. One of numerous possible members of Apiaceae (=Umbelliferae, carrot family). If the artist tries to communicate thet the leaves are palmately lobed (lobes radiating from one point rather than feather-like), a carrot relative is more likely than Achillea. Also in this family there are many species with pharmaceutical activity, up to poisonous ones such as Conium and Aethusa.
41r	Ferula assafoetida? Gnaphalium sp.? Plantago afra (Plantago psyllium)	First bids for 41r: depends on zooming. If this is a large plant (page width about 1 m) then suggestive of a flower-dominated member of Apiaceae (Umbelliferae), eg. Ferula communis although this should have yellowish flowers. If the image is a close-up, page width representing about 10 cm, many members of daisy family may be compared, e.g. flowering Petasites in spring, Gnaphalium sp.... Addition: What I wrote about Ferula communis in 41r, would make more sense pharmacologically if it refers to the smelly Ferula assafoetida, or Devil's Dung. In addition to Ferula assafoetida instead of Ferula communis, I would like to add a new candidate which I overlooked in my previous mail: Plantago afra (Plantago psyllium) is among the promising candidates, too. It produces seeds which produce a lot of mucus when moistened. Has been used in pharmacy.
42r	A species of Arum (secondarily, Calla or Sagittaria).	Folio 42r seems to illustrate two species of plants. These might make sense e.g. if they both grow in the same environment or are suggested to have similar pharmaceutical properties. As a starting hypothesis I suggest that the bigger leaf is a species of Arum (secondarily, Calla or Sagittaria). I suggest that the smaller, three-lobed one would be Menyanthes. Both have been used as pharmacy plants. Depending of species, they might share common biotopes in some areas, e.g. moist and/or shadowed places. If these would really be Arum and Menyanthes, then the root system would be drawn atypically slender: Either the artist has not seen the plants with rhizomes (odd, since he is otherwise interested in roots) and has assumed these, or the pictures represent young (cultured?) seedlings. Three-lobed leaves naturally occur in other plants as well, such as Trifolium. But that is another story.
43r	Bellis perennis, Antennaria dioica	Assuming the flowers (=flowerheads?) of 43r are more or less correct, I would start the searching from Bellis perennis, Antennaria dioica and their relatives in daisy family (Asteraceae). At least Bellis has been used as a healing plant.
43v	43v, left: Bupleurum baldense 43v, right: Bupleurum rotundifolium	The folio 43v seems to illustrate two plant species. Especially the one on the right looks rather mystical. As a first, vague guess, both might represent Bupleurum species: 43v, left: Bupleurum baldense 43v, right: Bupleurum rotundifolium (or a related species such as B. lancifolium). Here, the Artist would have tried to illustrate the leaves being fused round the stem. If this is true, then the Artist or his suppliers would have understood that these plants are related. Some Bupleurum species have been used as pharmacy plants in Asia, at least.
44r	Taraxacum	The image 44r could represent numerous alternative plant species, but you could start simply with: Taraxacum. In this case, the plants would be picked up, the rosette is actually against soil surface but is seen from below because the prant has been picked. With good will, the sharp lobes in leaves might be an attempt to illustrate the sharp teeth along edges of the leaves. The flower (actally a compound of many) would be simplified in the image.
45v	Scutellaria galericulata	The image 45v seems to show a slender plant arising from a thick rhizome, the rhizome being the part of interest. If correctly drawn, the plant has smallish leaves with rounded teeth and blue, paired flowers which stand upright in the bud stage. Primary candidate: Scutellaria galericulata. Not widely used in Europe but rhizomes of other Scutellaria species have been important drugs in Asia and Americas. Secondary candidates: Other members of Lamiaceae (regrettably big family) such as Salvia. Tertiary candidates: Scrophulariaceae Note: If the bud-like structures represent fruits, the logics needs to be thought over.
47r	Sempervivum tectorum	First guess for 47r: Sempervivum tectorum (succulent rosettes connected with a surface rhizome). This would be a pharmacy plant. Jovibarba is a very similar genus. As secondary choices, the image might in principle represent a wide variety of plants. Eg. small shoots of Sedum. They all grow on dry, sunny cliffs, mountainsides etc.
47v	Pulmonaria	First guess for 47v: Pulmonaria? Second choice: Other Boraginaceae (e.g. Anchusa)?? More far-fetched: Gentiana???
50v	Soldanella	First guess for 50v: Soldanella?
65v	A bunch of somewhat aged Matricaria (=Chamomilla) recutita (the species aimed), with a flowerhead of Centaurea cyanus interpreted erroneusly to belong in the same plant	In folio 65v, there are a few problems: a) Does the big blue "flower" belong in the same plant as the small white ones, or is the image a fusion (chimaira) of two species? b) Are the smaller white-green "flowers" really flowers or are they compact inflorescences (e.g of Daisy Family or Carrot Family)? c) Is the whole plant leafless or looking so (due to thin leaves) or has the image been painted of an aged plant or only a top of a plant? First, vague guess: A bunch of somewhat aged Matricaria (=Chamomilla) recutita (the species aimed), with a flowerhead of Centaurea cyanus interpreted erroneusly to belong in the same plant. These species commonly occur together in fields and may have been collected in the same bunch. Secondary guess: A member of Apiaceae (Carrot Family) with thread-like leaflets and petals of different lengths such as Coriandrum sativum. Also in this case, the blue flower would be a contaminant.
65r	Sanicula or Astrantia?	65r is oddly drawn, but Sanicula or Astrantia might be possible starts.
93v	Bryonia cretica ssp. dioica (female plant).	Also 93v looks mysterious. Looking just systematically for the combination of: - red berries and - lobed or strongly serrated leaves and - bulbous rhizomes, There seems to be at least one possible candidate however: Bryonia cretica ssp. dioica (female plant). This has for long been known as a strong up to poisonous pharmaceutic plant, causing e.g. bloody diarrhoea. As small doses it has been used for e.g. alimentary channel disorders.
93r	Inula helenium??	3r Would be suggestive of sunflowers (Helianthus), but then the manuscript should be made after Columbus' journeys. But see the European health plant Inula helenium which is rather similar in structure but somewhat smaller. Missing of the yellow ray flowers might be explained by assuming that the artist has seen dried flowerheads as pharmacy specimens: http://tcm.health-info.org/Herb%20Pictures/Xuan%20Fu%20Hua%20.jpg
94r	Hedera helix	The strange leaves of 94r look like e.g. Botrychium or some fern, being however wrongly combined with "flowers" in that case. However, without doing any wider search, I would like to point out that the umbel of dark berries with a distal area of different colour is very reminiscent of Hedera helix, i.e. ivy. If this bunch of poisonous berries would have been the only part the artist/pharmacist has had at hand when drawing, he might perhaps have drawn the rest of the plant incorrectly from memory, perhaps trying to communicate the climbing character of the plant. Ivy is a pharmacy plant, used for at least respiratory disorders.
95v	Fumaria officinalis	This is a very vague suggestion without systematic searches, but the leaves of 95v would fit well in Fumaria officinalis, a potent pharmacy plant from antiquity (the whole shoot would be used). Also the inflorescence would have some correct habitus. The fine structure of flowers would be wrongly painted, however.
99r	Rumex acetosa? Dioscorea communis / Tamus communis?	Finding matches between possible recipes and illustrations, you might start from the last entry of Folio 99r, illustrating only one plant, both the shoot and root, comprising the whole drug. I propose as the first assumption that the plant is same as 96v, and represents Rumex acetosa. It fits in this hypothesis that both the roots and the rest of the herb of this species have been used against scurvy (=scorbutus, later understood to be caused by C-vitamin deficiency). Disocorea/Tamus is a plausible hypothesis, too. Considering the clumsy style, there are also other plants that are not excluded, as yet. The meander-like/spiralling end of the plants indeed would suggest a climbing plant such as Tamus. I tried to look beyond that feature. In the Rumex hypothesis the curved end would be seen as artistic decoration, or perhaps reflecting also a specimen withered somewhat during transport, with a drooping top. Having two quite similar plants in the book, with a difference in the basal flaps of the leaves, would suggest these slender Rumex species (R. acetosa is actually a species complex. I have not checked whether they have even more close allies in South Europe). In case of Tamus, there is in my handbooks at home only one relevant species in Europe, and its leaves are generally more heart-shaped. But possible, yes.
99r - 102v	General	First guess for 99r-102v: Recipes of drug mixtures?! The cylindrical objects on the left (some named) would represent either some clinical entities (such as cough or headache) for which the mixture can be used, or labeled (idealised) cylindric drug vessels (such as "Witche's Blood" or "Druid's Super Drops") which contain the plant parts shown. If this the case, then the bathing ladies could, in addition to possible water fairies, also mean some essences or good healing spirits of plants which are extracted or distilled into drugs when cooked etc. Showing only a given plant part (eg. root) in these figures would support the assumption that also (some of) the big images earlier deal with the usage of these plants. It may be worth while to search for matches between the "species illustrations" and these possible recipe details of same plants. If the plant parts between 99-102 represent recipes of drugs, then also the long star list in the end might be a practice-oriented list how a given star can be interpreted in relation to human health, fortune and future happenings. And the circular cosmological star images earlier woud then give a larger view or theoretical basis for these practical "star recipes".
Folio 101v, middle page, second entry from above.	Armoracia rusticana	Also here it seems that a single plant comprises the whole drug. The product looks quite much like horseradish (Armoracia rusticana). White roots and a bluntly serrated lower leaf. Keep that as a starting hypothesis, although not diagnostic data. With a rapid glance on small figures I did not find a good match in large images, but it may be known by name, already. Also this would be credible - and effective! as a single drug since it contains C-vitamin. See for "scurvy" which matches the entries of supposed Rumex acetosa. Naturally acts as spice, too. In Wiki there are some older names, Sinapis Persica or alike.
101v, 3rd page, last entry in the bottom		I studied a bit the drug entry 101v, 3rd page, last entry in the bottom of page. The illustration shows two types of roots or rhizomes. On the left ("Root A") there is a thick, pale rootstock with finger-like appendages and a "lantern-like" structure on the left. On the right ("Root B") there is probably a horizontal rhizome with "millipede appearance": small thinner roots directed down. I made an attempt to link these to the large plant entries. Root A: I think this is practically certain: The author refers to folio 18v. This was the only one with such finger-like appendages. In addition, also the lantern structure was illustrated! Good match. However, word matches would be good to confirm this. Root B: This is unsure at the moment. Main candidates found were 23r (I rank this highest for the time being), 43r, 44r and perhaps 39r. The root could also present some vegetable not described in the book. Word matches would be valuable.